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SOME THOUGHTS ON THE CHURCH AND CHURCH GOVERNMENT

IN THE APOSTOLIC PERIOD

Introduction

The existence of the Christian Church comes from Christ. He builds the Church (Matthew 16:18; Hebrews 3:1-6; Acts 15:14; 2 Corinthians 5:17 etc.). When, through the Spirit of Christ, people in a town or city are converted by grace and united to Christ through faith, there you have a church of Christ, a local expression of the Church of Christ. The Church of Christ in its widest extent consists of all those throughout the world who profess the true faith in Jesus Christ and subjection to him as Saviour and Lord, together with their children. The necessary inward aspect of genuine relation to Christ means that membership of the organised Church may not correspond to those truly redeemed. Departures from the Word of God may be such that a Church may become apostate, but even when there are quite serious problems, Paul can address, for example, ‘the church of God in Corinth’ according to its calling and profession. 

The Church in its deepest significance is not created by a mere legal Constitution approved by Parliament, or rules arbitrarily drawn up by members, as in a social club, but by God. It is a living organism before it is a developed organisation and must always keep that in mind. A local church or group of churches in an organised form needs to avoid thinking in merely denominational ways but remember that the Church is called to faithfulness to Christ its Head.

Christ is the Head of the Church because he is its King and Lord, and its organised life is to be regulated by the Scriptures, properly interpreted, as illustrated in 2 Timothy 3:

¹⁴ But as for you, continue in what you have learned and have become convinced of, because you know those from whom you learned it, ¹⁵ and how from infancy you have known the Holy Scriptures, which are able to make you wise for salvation through faith in Christ Jesus. ¹⁶ All Scripture is God-breathed and is useful for teaching, rebuking, correcting and training in righteousness, ¹⁷ so that the servant of God may be thoroughly equipped for every good work.

Christ has given authority to the elders of the Church including specific instructions to them (Romans 12:8; 1 Timothy 5:2-22; Titus 3:10; 1 Peter 5:3). The laws the Church makes are limited to declaration of what the Lord has revealed (Acts 15:6-29) or applications of the principles in what has been revealed to particular cases or circumstances (e.g. 1 Corinthians 8). It seeks to do all things in an orderly way (1 Corinthians 14:26,40), always with a view to building up the body of Christ in love. Every member has a role or office, if you like. All have received gifts to be used to build up the whole body.

Christ is the Head of the Church also because the ministry and sacraments of the Church are effective by his blessing not by any power in the minister or elders or their predecessors in office. Christ equips and calls to office and in ordinary circumstances the Church recognises and admits to the offices Christ has instituted, when she finds the person qualified by the Word of God.

The Church after Pentecost

The twelve Apostles as the leaders of the reconstituted Israel were witnesses of Jesus’ ministry and resurrection. On the day of Pentecost 3,000 of those who listened to Peter were converted (Acts 2:41). We read:

⁴² They devoted themselves to the apostles’ teaching and to fellowship, to the breaking of bread and to prayer. ⁴³ Everyone was filled with awe at the many wonders and signs performed by the apostles. ⁴⁴ All the believers were together and had everything in common. ⁴⁵ They sold property and possessions to give to anyone who had need. ⁴⁶ Every day they continued to meet together in the temple courts. They broke bread in their homes and ate together with glad and sincere hearts, ⁴⁷ praising God and enjoying the favour of all the people. And the Lord added to their number daily those who were being saved.

Acts 3 and 4 record the healing of the lame beggar and the futile attempt by the Sanhedrin to silence Peter and John. Towards the end of Acts 4 we are reminded of the unity of believers and God’s powerful working among them so that ‘there were no needy persons among them’ for gifts of money were ‘laid at the apostles’ feet, and distributed to any who had need’ (Acts 4:34,35).

How long this happy state lasted is unclear. One can well imagine the early enthusiasm waned a little and gave rise to the first evidence of New Testament church organisation in Acts 6:1-7 about AD 34.

6:1 In those days when the number of disciples was increasing, the Hellenistic Jews among them complained against the Hebraic Jews because their widows were being overlooked in the daily distribution of food.

The daily distribution seems to have been primarily ‘of food’ (these explanatory words are added in the NIV), but ‘the distribution’ could be taken to include some ministry of the word as well, given Acts 2:46. At any rate, some Greek-speaking Jewish widows from Gentile lands influenced by Greek culture were being overlooked by the Jews living in Palestine and chiefly speaking Aramaic. It has been suggested of these widows by an Australian Roman Catholic ecumenist:

….they were neither free to attend large gatherings in the temple forecourts nor linguistically equipped to understand what these Aramaic preachers were saying when they returned from the temple to speak in the intimacy of the household (5:42). Accordingly, the Hellenist’s widows were in need of preachers who could teach them in Greek, and preferably at home when Greek speakers came together at their tables (6:2).[1]

We are not told if there were already elders from a Palestinian background helping the apostles. That is certainly possible as a carryover from Old Testament practice. At any rate, up till now the apostles had the leadership responsibility whoever else might have assisted. However, the open-hearted loving care for each other in the infant but growing community of some thousands became impacted by a greater consciousness of differences. Tensions between the descendants of those who had returned from exile in Babylon centuries before and those who had remained in the dispersion led to concern not just because of language but cultural difference. The apostles stated that it was not proper for them to leave the ministry of the word ‘to serve tables’ [diaconein trapezais]. The responsibility for distribution of food and/or money[2] to the poor believers from the resources given to the apostles (4.35,37; 5:2) needed to be placed in other hands. The choice was given to the believers subject to the requirement that those believers chosen should be full of the Holy Spirit evidenced particularly by their wisdom.

The choice of seven men

Strikingly, the seven men chosen all have Greek names and might all have been Hellenists. Their choice shows a willingness to trust a section of believers who were culturally different by giving people belonging to that section full responsibility in matters concerning them. The church prospered under this arrangement (6.7). The decision left the apostles free to carry out their primary role more effectively as special foundational witnesses of Christ in prayer and preaching although it did not mean complete exclusion of the apostles’ concern in this financial area (e.g. Romans 15:23-33).

The appointment of the seven men in Acts 6:1-7 is commonly, but by no means universally, regarded as the foundation of the office of deacon,[3] although the term ‘deacon’ does not appear. T. M. Lindsay, citing among others, Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, IV, viii, 14 & 38, argued[4] that the term ‘the seven’ is a technical one referring to the typical ruling council in a Jewish village:

14. Let there be seven men to judge in every city; and these such as have been before most zealous in the exercise of virtue, and righteousness.

38. But if he in whom the trust was placed, without any deceit of his own lose what he was entrusted with, let him come before the seven judges, and swear by God, that nothing has been lost willingly, or with a wicked intention, and that he has not made use of any part of it.

On this view, the seven in Acts 6 are best described as elders who also had responsibilities later allocated to deacons. This interpretation accounts for the preaching activities of Stephen and Philip as well as the gift collected by the Church in Antioch for the poor believers in Jerusalem being sent about AD 43 to the elders at Jerusalem. The reference in Acts 11:29-30 to this event is the first mention of elders in the Christian movement:

 ²⁹ The disciples, as each one was able, decided to provide help for the brothers and sisters living in Judea. ³⁰ This they did, sending their gift to the elders by Barnabas and Saul.

One therefore assumes the elders at Jerusalem to be the same class of officers as those appointed some years before in Acts 6. Elsewhere in the New Testament (Philippians 1:1; 1 Timothy 3:1) the elders (presbuteroi), whose name reflects their maturity, are described as overseers (episcopoi), a name indicating their function.

Deacons

In the course of time the workload of the elders who were set apart by Paul in each church he founded according to Acts 14:23 (dated around AD 49), would also be sufficient to justify setting apart others to be in charge of the financial matters and the care of the poor. This would be a natural evolution from the apostolic example, especially given that it is to the elders that the oversight of the church is committed in the absence of the apostles (cf. Acts 20:25ff). And so progressively it becomes the practice for deacons to be appointed. But the word for ‘deacon’ (diakonos) has a wide use in the New Testament. In only three of the thirty instances in the New Testament does the term unambiguously refer to the office of deacon. These three references all belong at the earliest to around AD 63 and reflect a more organised church life. 1 Timothy 3:8,13 outlines the qualifications for office, and Philippians 1:1 addresses the church in Philippi with its overseers (= elders) and deacons.

Although for 150 years or so the idea of humble service has been thought to be the essence of the diakon- word group, all Christian life involves humble service, not something reserved to a few. John Collins has convincingly demonstrated through his detailed word study published in 1990 that the essence of the word group in classical Greek and into New Testament times is that of a person appointed to a task by a superior. In his endeavour to reinvigorate the office of deacon away from a social service role in Roman Catholic and Anglican churches committed to a three-office view – bishop, priest and deacon – Collins employs the results of his word study in a particular direction I do not share, but his work is helpful. In my mind, the focus is not on those holding the office of deacon doing all the work of caring for the poor as if they are social workers, but their being appointed by the congregation to co-ordinate its work in this area according to the principles set out by the elders.

The qualifications for elders and deacons (1 Timothy 3) overlap somewhat. Spiritual maturity and good character are required, but, unlike the elder, the deacon does not need to be able to teach or rule in the church. His office is sufficient in itself and not simply a mere stepping stone to a ‘higher’ office. The two great needs – spiritual and material – are therefore provided for by the addition of deacons where circumstances required.

While it is common to read l Timothy as if it simply progresses through a number of pastoral issues, it seems a bit more involved than that. It appears that there is a chiastic structure, a rhetorical practice quite common in Biblical literature and very suitable in an oral culture, to aid comprehension and memorisation.

1. ‘Fight the good fight’, not swerving from the faith [l:6,18] (1:1-20)
2. Godliness in the membership of the congregation (2:1-15)
3. Godliness: leadership to be ‘without reproach’ [3:2] (3:1-13)
4. Godliness – how to behave in God’s house 3:14-5:2

C¹ Godliness – widows to be ‘without reproach’ [5:7] 5:16

B₁ Godliness in the leadership of the Congregation (5:17-25)

A¹ ‘Fight the good fight’ – not going astray from the faith [6:10,12] (6:1-21)

Whatever the detailed merit or otherwise of this outline it serves to emphasise the undoubted chief theme of the letter: godliness is to be characteristic of God’s household (3:15). It is conduct shaped by the work accomplished by Christ, announced and acknowledged, as in 3:16. That needs to be kept very much in view. Godliness in the congregation is the feature of B, but the corresponding section B¹ has focus on the elders. The rulers as well as the ruled are subject to the rule of Christ. That C and C¹ are parallel might suggest that in some sense the needy widows supported by the church have a vital position at least as role models, since the church acknowledged they were beyond reproach by providing financial support.

Elders are frequently mentioned as having governing roles, and notably in the decisions of the Council at Jerusalem in AD 49, but the deacon is not often referred to. In 1 Timothy 3 Paul is setting out the pattern for Timothy to follow in his pastoral work in Ephesus circa AD 64. About the same time Titus in Crete is urged to appoint elders in every town (Titus 1:5) but there is no reference to deacons, likely because the church there was only recently established. It would be up to the elders to determine the need for deacons. The Philippian Church had deacons but it seems to have been a well-off church with a significant interest in outreach and giving so the appointment of deacons was a natural development.

Apparently, as in Jerusalem with the apostles, it was assumed that in Crete the bishops/presbyters would also care for the needy until such a time as the work became too great and men qualified to serve as diakonoi were available. The same approach was followed in Paul’s first missionary journey (Acts 14:23), and concern for ‘the weak’ was still perceived as the responsibility of the bishops/elders in Miletus (Acts 20:35), whether these men administered such aid or not.[5]

It is evident that the diaconate as a distinct office is not essential in the absolute sense. However, elders should not be so consumed with church temporal concerns that the spiritual life of the congregation suffers. If this becomes an issue, deacons would be very desirable for the practical matters involved in implementing the policy set by the eldership.

Presbyterian government

In the New Testament the house church was common. Judging from Paul’s references in Romans 16:5,10,11,14 & 15, there were at least five house churches in Rome, a city commonly estimated to have a population of a million. Links between these gatherings would have been close. But generally we do not find the infant churches in highly organised connection with each other. The seven churches of Asia Minor are listed in the order they would be visited on a postal route (Revelation 2 & 3) They knew about each other but did not have an organised presbytery exercising oversight as we would understand that. Of course, the seven churches are written to as representative of all the churches then and in every age. The New Testament recognises the priority of the local church and suggests a bottom-up rather than top-down model of presbyterial church government.  

Acts 15 reports on a Council at Jerusalem in AD 49 to deal with issues raised by Gentiles becoming Christians. The decision at this Council was not reached by an inspired direction by the Apostles, who were present as related to all the churches, but by reasoning out of the Scriptures by the apostles and elders of Jerusalem and persons from Antioch. It was done openly so the whole church could hear and concur. Interestingly, the summary argument was given by James, who looks like the chairman. James the son of Zebedee had been killed some years before (Acts 12:2), and this James was probably the Lord’s brother (Galatians 1:19). The discussion was held in the presence of many of the believers and the decision commended itself to them (15:12,22). It was sent to other churches and received with joy (Acts 15:31; 16:4-5) and obeyed so the churches were encouraged and strengthened in the work.

The Headship of Christ, the authority of Scripture and the need of the Spirit; the priesthood of all believers and the role of each in the body of Christ; the principle of councils of faithful elders at the local and geographical wider area to care for the flock and resolve issues including those wider moment than the local situation; – these things are clear. So is the choice of the people in calling their office-bearers, and the protection of their conscience from the mere commandments of men.  In this framework they may live and serve as those set free by the Spirit from bondage to sin to love and serve the Lord in their local communities and in all the world.

– Rowland Ward

[1] John N. Collins, Deacons and the Church: Making Connections Between Old and New (Harrisburg, PA: Morehouse Publishing, 2002), 57. Collins’ doctoral work on the daikon word group in classical Greek and into the New Testament period is referred to later in this essay.

[2] The Greek word for a bank even today is trapeza.

[3] A good example of this is Herman Bavinck, Reformed Dogmatics Vol. IV (Grand Rapids: Baker, 2008) 345-347.

[4] T. M. Lindsay, The Church and the Ministry in the Early Centuries (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1902) 113ff.

[5] George W. Knight III, Commentary on the Pastoral Epistles (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1992) 175.